The Repercussions of Climate Change

by:Guillermo Recio
Mexico

The Repercussions of Climate Change on the Indigenous Rarámuri People: Local Actions, Global Benefits

“The Earth is our mother, she feeds us and she will receive us when we die.” [“La tierra es nuestra madre, ella nos da de comer y ella nos va a recibir el día que nos muramos.”]
-popular Rarámuri saying

Forest Industry in Mexico
International actors are known for imposing the ideology of modernization in the farthest reaches of the planet. Although progress has certainly allowed the global society to obtain greater knowledge-related benefits, we must not forget that this increased knowledge should be used within a context of sustainability.

Over the years, indigenous peoples have witnessed the invasion of capitalism into their territories. This is because of the high level of interest in usurping natural resources, and eventually establishing industrial complexes, which become communities that suffer a tremendous loss of ancestral biodiversity.

This has been the case with the Rarámuri or Tarahumara indigenous ethnic group, an indigenous community located in the southwest of the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua, with an estimated 84,086 indigenous Rarámuris, who represent three percent of the state’s total population. The Tarahumaras live together in the Sierra Tarahumara, a part of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range.

The majesty of the Sierra Tarahumara is seen in the enormous diversity in natural resources, with hundreds of endemic species that are very valuable for their traditional and cultural use. Therefore, in the Sierra Tarahumara alone, almost 600 medicinal plants have been documented, and in the words of German geographer, George Mayer, “The Western Sierra Madre ecosystem combines transitions of extreme differences in altitude and climate to form the greatest biodiversity of the American continent. 7,000 plant species, or one fourth of all the botanical species in Mexico, are found in the region.”

The Sierra Tarahumara also has various species of forest resources, such as pine, fir, and ash forests, which are vital for local and global development. This can be seen if we briefly analyze the importance of the Tarahumara forest in an international, national, and regional context.

One of the most outstanding features of the forests in the Sierra Tarahumara, at the global level, is the significant contribution to the field of environmental sciences, such as ecology, since the endemic species are an essential part of the ecological balance.

Climate regulation is another critical factor that allows us to understand the importance of preserving the forests in the Sierra Tarahumara. Since the signing of the Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit in Río de Janeiro (1992), the international community has fought to preserve biodiversity in order to reduce the consequences of climate change.

The contributions made by the Sierra Tarahumara at the local level are evident primarily in the way that groups of people interact with it. From before the arrival of the Spanish, Rarámuri communities depended, and still depend, on the natural wealth of the forests for their domestic needs—wood, food, and spiritual customs. However, the destruction of their forest began during the colonial era. Deforestation therefore started with the arrival of the Spanish colonizer, and it must be borne in mind that during the period of the Spanish Colony, firewood was one of the most symbolic fuels and was used in towns and cities. Furthermore, the mindset at that time was that natural resources were inexhaustible; the consumption of wood was therefore one of the main activities.

The foray of Mexican forest production into international spheres began in 1992 during the presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994), subsequent to the amendment of Article 27 of the Constitution, which addresses matters related to forests and land. Through this article, various tariff barriers on wood resources were promptly removed.

In addition, on January 1, 1994 Mexico—along with Canada and the United States of America—ratified the Free Trade Agreement (FTA). The new free market model attracted the attention of the North American market. Suddenly different transnational corporations decided to invest in the vast Tarahumara forests, which had been exclusively reserved for regional gain.

Unfortunately, the hope of reducing the poverty levels in the region, guaranteed by the Free Trade Agreement, has not become a reality and much remains to be done. A recent trend of great environmental importance is the high rate of legal and illegal deforestation in the Sierra Tarahumara (almost 90 percent of the wood obtained for the forest industry in Chihuahua comes from Tarahumara land), thereby increasing an irreversible ecological imbalance.



What are the Effects of Climate Change?

Soil is one of the Rarámuri community’s most fundamental ties to its historic past and traditions. Several population groups recently questioned the deforestation techniques that have increased the levels of soil erosion. Statements made by environmental organizations, such as Greenpeace México and Fuerza Ambiental, indicate that ever since the felling of trees began, soil erosion has increased.

The danger of deforestation is still imminent in Mexico, and secret felling is disrupting the national climate systems. Furthermore, because of the non-existence of tree species in our tropical and temperate forests (as is the case with the conifer forest in the Sierra Tarahumara), it is impossible to capture CO2, which is found freely in the atmosphere. Recent research shows that “Mexico has deforested more than one-third of its forests and jungles, thereby reducing its original woodland area of 52 percent of the country, to 33 percent in the year 2000.”

At the international level, Mexico must demonstrate social responsibility in environmental matters, since it produces approximately two percent of greenhouse gas emissions, and if this trend continues, it is projected that by 2010, Mexico will be generating twice its current volume of emissions.

My Experience in the Tarahumara

Below, I will briefly present my experience as a volunteer in the Sierra Tarahumara, where I had the opportunity to witness the serious effects of climate change on one of the most isolated indigenous communities, which has the highest poverty rate in the country. This account seeks to illustrate the critical situation faced by the Tarahumaras.

During my years as a university student, I had the opportunity to explore various areas of learning. However, there was something inside of me that made me want to leave that circle in which I was immersed, and learn about a reality that was alien to my own. One afternoon, while walking along a corridor of the University, I saw a yellow poster hanging that read: “Hear the call of the Tarahumara.” Eager to learn more about that call, I signed up for the information session and a few weeks later became a volunteer in the Sierra Tarahumara.

On reaching the town of Huiyochi, and once inside the old clinic of the town, a group of children came to welcome us. Quickly trying to say Kwira ba (hello) in our best Rarámuri, we began to greet them.

In Huiyochi, we were surprised by the great distances between houses in the same community, which meant that everyone had to walk long distances to go from one house to the next. When we asked Juan, our small nine year old Rarámuri guide of the first few days, why this situation existed, he said that it was because there was little arable land.

During the first weeks we noticed the tremendous ecological damage within the Sierra Tarahumara. Almost 60 percent of the families in the community of Huiyochi were enduring the hardship caused by the environmental changes, which were reflected in the barren farmland.

Case of the Jiménez Family

Our daily task was to assist various families in Huiyochi. Of all the families that we came to know, I can say that we had a close relationship with Juan’s family, the Jiménez family. His father, Patricio, is one of the most respected men in the community because his anayáwari (ancestors) were great heroes for the Rarámuris. María, his wife, was known for preparing the best teswino in Huiyochi. However, it was very difficult to communicate with her since she did not speak Spanish, which is typical of indigenous women in the Sierra Tarahumara who have to do household chores, thus preventing them from attending school, which is where most Tarahumaras learn Spanish.

Patricio and María have three children. The oldest is Felipe, whom unfortunately we did not meet since a few weeks earlier, because of the small harvest resulting from the low rainfall recorded during the month of March, he went to the city of Cuauhtémoc, where he managed to get a temporary job as an apple picker. The second son, Juan, was in the third grade at primary school. He told us that his favorite subject was History because he liked to know what had happened before all of us were born. And lastly, there was Martina, who was only four years old.

One morning, Patricio took us to his workplace, a sawmill located on the outskirts of the municipality of San Juanito. Owing to the fact that he had to walk just over two kilometers to get to work, Patricio always took the precaution of leaving home at 5:00 a.m. to avoid any delays, since the first to arrive were hired to work that day.

I immediately noticed the vast expanse of land that used to be a forest, but now only bears the remains of a place that was once the habitat of hundreds of species.

Patricio’s job, like so many other Tarahumaras who worked at the sawmill, was to fell trees, which are subsequently sent to various machines that convert wood into semi-finished products. At this stage, Tarahumara labor is almost minimal and despite the fact that this small sawmill is known to use extremely obsolete technology, the owners choose to hire trained personnel to operate these tools.

The work done by the Tarahumaras is characterized by exhaustive and long days, with workers at great risk of becoming accident victims. In terms of payment, the workers earn only 80 pesos per day (approximately US$5.70).

The Tarahumara people know that this depredation of the forests is an activity that is slowly putting an end to their existence, and are aware of the tremendous damage being done to the earth. However, in the absence of better economic opportunities, this type of work is the only option.

It is important to mention that the purpose of the forest in every ecosystem is the evapotranspiration of water to vapor, the gas that rises into the atmosphere to form clouds, which in turn will be responsible for producing rain, and a constant life cycle and enrichment of the soil leads to fertile land. However, cutting the trees will halt this cycle, the rains will stop, temperatures will rise, an irreversible process of desertification will start, and water resources will decrease, as seen in 1999 when the Basaseachi waterfalls dried up due to a reduction in rainfall in the Sierra Tarahumara. The sum of all the above factors is the engulfing of the Tarahumara by climate change.

The Drought Research Center [Centro de Investigación sobre Sequías CEISS] recently stated that “as a result of climate change, in recent years the institution has lost 68 percent of its forest cover, recorded persistent droughts, and witnessed an increase of up to 4°C in temperature. Also, since 1993, annual average rainfall has been below 400 millimeters.” In a region that is accustomed to having an average temperature of 5°C during the winter, after severe climate changes, the thermometer has dropped to -10°C in some sections of the Tarahumara. Likewise, during the summer, the temperature was usually 30°C. Now it is above 38°C. According to the State Civil Protection Unit of Chihuahua [Unidad Estatal de Protección Civil del Estado de Chihuahua], climate change in the region will result in a 25 percent decline in annual precipitation. Furthermore, in most of the territory, extreme temperatures of 53° C in the shade are expected.

This increase in temperature, which causes excessive heat, lack of rainfall, and poor vegetation, has greatly affected the sowing of corn, beans, and alfalfa. Traditional agriculture was unable to withstand the severe increases in temperature and the drought that dominated the Sierra for most of the summer. The harvest was lost, leaving the family without food for several days. The uncertainty of not knowing what they would eat during those days was an ongoing concern for the families of Huiyochi.

The effects of climate change are not only the change in the environment, but also the severe social repercussions. Some of the impacts include migration, malnutrition, and drug trafficking. I will briefly describe below the three aforementioned effects.

1.- The decision to leave the ancestral lands is attributable to the consequences of climate change, which have impacted the way of life of the Rarámuri ethnic group. Strong environmental degradation, coupled with extensive periods of drought, has created serious migration problems. However, this process is not easy, as the Tarahumara must leave their families and enter a culture that is totally different from their own.

Despite the existence of more opportunities, it will be hard for both men and women to break the yoke of discrimination, as they face labor exploitation in unskilled jobs, such as those in the manufacturing industry, construction, and domestic services. As a result, the adoption of alien cultural values is more evident, and the loss of the Rarámuri (culture) has therefore become a constant factor in the second generation Tarahumaras who reside outside of their community. Felipe, whom I never had the chance to meet, came to mind, but this did not prevent me from thinking about the difficult circumstances under which Felipe grew up in the Sierra Tarahumara, which pushed him to seek better opportunities for his family. Upon my return to the City of Chihuahua, I was moved by the sight of a young Rarámuri boy juggling with small balls, begging for alms in front of the Ministry of Social Development. At that moment I remained reflective and at a loss for words.

2.- Efforts by public health institutions in Mexico to combat the effects of malnutrition have been limited, as these institutions are only located in big cities. Some 90.6 percent of the most inland communities of the Sierra do not have health services. During the time that I was in Huiyochi, I observed only one visit by medical representatives.

Obtaining a suitable diet has caused abject misery, since 50 percent of children under five years of age suffer from malnutrition, 23 percent of children are underweight, and 2.5 percent have severe cases of malnutrition.

3.- Drug trafficking is increasingly commonplace in Tarahumara families that allow poppy plant growing in their own homes as an alternative source of income. This situation has triggered serious problems with security and violence in the Sierra.


How Can We Address Climate Change in the Tarahumara?

The situation is quite grim, and the high level of environmental degradation caused by the effects of deforestation on climate change and recent social problems have led me to wonder: What can we do to help? How can we do it? How can we combat climate change?

My friends and I therefore decided to create a Biointensive Orchard with the Jiménez family. The orchard uses sustainable agricultural methods that have the capacity to put nutrients back into the earth, where labor is the most important value. Creating an orchard does not require big tools, only pick axes, shovels, and forks. The Ecology and Population Association [Asociación de Ecología y Población] mentions the following features of the Biointensive Orchard: “(a) It obtains results of between 400 and 3,100 percent, even in adverse soil conditions; (b) It does not require fertilizers or chemical pesticides; (c) It only needs 30 percent of water, which is particularly important in arid zones or areas that receive little rainfall; and (d) It reconstructs the soil 60 times faster than nature itself.”

The process was very simple. We first marked out the space for the orchard, with 1m x 3m as the measurement. We then used posts and cords to mark the five beds where we would plant beetroot, zucchini, corn, potato, and radish. We will explain below the double digging technique, a process that is extremely relevant for soil regeneration. In the first bed, we made a 30 centimeter ditch, using the points of the fork to loosen the earth, which was removed and placed in a container. We then continued using the fork to loosen the earth that was beneath the earth that had been removed.

Alongside our first ditch, we conducted the same procedure to remove 30 centimeters of earth, which would be placed in the first ditch. All the steps were repeated until the five beds were completed. The double digging technique is noted for leaving the soil “loose and ideal for the roots of plants to penetrate it without too much effort.”

Having an orchard was very important for the family, as it gave them a great sense of purpose to take due care of the orchard. It was very gratifying for us to be able to return four months afterward to Huiyochi and see the fruits of our labor: food self-sufficiency and a reduction in soil erosion, since the soil was being kept moist. There was also community interaction, because since there was a method that provided food in abundance, it generated even more Korima (spirit of giving), whereby anything good that I possess I share with my brothers for the benefit of the community.

During the 2007–2008 period, 12 biointensive orchards were established in Huiyochi, extending to the neighboring communities of Guacayvo, Osachi, and Tayarachi.

Through the orchards project, we managed to combat the specter of poverty and malnutrition caused by global warming. However, the critical issue requires more actions to reduce the effects of climate change. In addition to the biointensive orchards project, I would therefore like to present two more programs.



(a) Tarahumara Verde

Based on the principles of sustainability, the program, in collaboration with environmental NGOs, seeks to reforest native species of the Sierra Tarahumara in order to (i) combat climate change by planting hundreds of trees that will capture the free CO2 in the atmosphere; (ii) reverse the deforestation process; (iii) increase the green areas that have been reduced by the invasion of forest sawmills; (iv) balance the rain cycle; (v) reduce soil erosion; (vi) reduce extreme weather changes; and lastly (vii) promote the conservation of natural species.

(b) Environmental Education

Young people are constantly being denied the opportunity to participate in the building of a more just and equitable society, perhaps because we are still too young to provide ideas that are worthy of discussion. Nevertheless, many of the best ideas come from young minds. The global youth is, and must be, the builder of a new society.

Mexican youth must also be the protagonists of essential changes in indigenous communities, including the Rarámuri. In my opinion, one of the most evident shortcomings of contemporary Mexico is our poor educational system, especially in terms of the ecological culture, where, part of the blame rests with us, the young people, who do not demand a greater focus on environmental matters from our teachers and the Government.

As a volunteer and a student, it pains me to know that indigenous populations are always the main victims of environmental changes. It is precisely this lack of care for the indigenous communities that makes them vulnerable to surrendering their land to a system of overexploitation.

As young people, we must be more sensitive to these major issues. A bicultural-bilingual Rarámuri environmental education program would be a suitable measure for combating climate change from the bottom up.

Similarly, the educational program not only promotes the dissemination of ideas in rural schoolrooms, but also man’s interaction with the environment as an effective means of emphasizing knowledge of and empathy for nature. The following paragraph therefore reflects the points to be addressed in the area of environmental education.

(1) Natural Preservation: The Rarámuri philosophy believes that respect for nature is essential for human development. During my voluntary service in the Sierra, I remember speaking with Sofía, a young rural teacher, who was trying to teach children the importance of caring for our environment. In order to achieve her objective, Sofía used the Rarámuri philosophy to explain to children how nature got angry with man if man forgot about her and polluted her. Using a creative approach, a course is being adopted that promotes the use of indigenous knowledge in plant and animal conservation.

(2) World Tree: The main advantage in starting environmental education early is that it gives children and young people the necessary tools for protecting the environment. Furthermore, as the child grows, s/he will become a parent, an active member of the community, and an opinion leader who will seek to transmit this ecological learning to the new generations. Through the “World Tree” workshops, Tarahumara groups of children and young people are invited to become witnesses of the benefits that this program can provide for the global society.

Conclusion

The need to rescue the indigenous Tarahumara community from climate change is critical. It is impossible to speak about progress and modernization, as presented in international agreements such as the FTA, when we see that within Mexico, 84,088 indigenous Rarámuri are in a desperate situation of marginalization. We young people should be among the primary promoters of national ethnic wealth, and, as such, the opening up of the discussion, where cultural value is taken into consideration, is of fundamental importance in order to ensure real social change. Biodiversity would therefore be supported through indigenous care, which would combat climate change. Finally, we must raise awareness about the fact that national cooperation must be the way forward in the quest for intergroup development. If as a society we are capable of making great strides, why can’t we address and promote socially responsible development that elevates our human worth?






BIBLIOGRAPHY

• COSYDDAC (1999) The Forest Industry and Forest Resources in the Sierra Madre of Chihuahua: Social, Economic, and Ecological Impacts. [La industria forestal y los recursos forestales en la Sierra Madre de Chihuahua: impactos sociales, económicos y ecológicos] http://www.texascenter.org/publications/forestal.pdf

• Tarahumara Foundation [Fundación Tarahumara] José A. Llaguno (http://www.Tarahumara.org.mx/)

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• Planeta Azul (2007) Climate Alert in Chihuahua [Alerta el clima en Chihuahua]. Planeta Azul, environmental journalism. Chihuahua, México. http://www.planetaazul.com.mx/www/2007/05/28/alerta-el-clima-en-chihuahua/


• Ricker, Martín (2008) The Role of Mexican Forests in Storing Carbon to Mitigate Climate Change. Biology Institute [El papel de los bosques mexicanos en el almacenamiento de carbono para mitigar el cambio climático. Instituto de Biología], UNAM. México D.F. http://www.smf.mx/C-Global/webElpapelbosquesmex2.htm